The standard error is an indispensable tool in the kit of a researcher, because it is used in testing the validity of statistical hypothesis. The standard deviation of the sampling distribution of a statistic is called the standard error. The standard error is important in dealing with statistics (measures of samples) which are normally distributed. Here the use of the word “error” is justified in this connection by the fact that we usually regard the expected value to be true value and the divergence from it as error of estimation due to sampling fluctuations. The term standard error has a wider meaning than merely the standard deviation of simple sampling because of the following reasons; The standard error is mainly employed for testing the validity of a given hypothesis. Mostly two levels of significance (0.05 and 0.01) are used for testing the validity of hypotheses. At 0.05 level of significance, Continue reading
Research Basics
Measurement Scales in Research Methodology
Certain research data are qualitative in nature. Data on attitude, opinion or behavior of employees, customers, and sales persons etc., are qualitative. The terms “attitude” and “opinion” have frequently been differentiated in psychological and sociological investigations. A commonly drawn distinction has been to view an attitude as a predisposition to act in a certain way and an opinion as a verbalization of the attitude. Thus, a statement by a respondent that he prefers viewing color to black-and-white television programs would be an opinion expressing one aspect of the respondent’s attitude toward color television. Motivation, commitment, satisfaction, leadership effectiveness, etc involve attitude measurement based on revealed opinions. These qualitative data require measurement scales for being measured. Types of Measurement Scales used in Research There are four different scales of measurement used in research; nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio. The rules used to assign numerals objects define the kind of scale and Continue reading
The Research Problem
The first step in research is formulating the research problem. Stefan Nowak defined a research problem as “a certain question or set of questions to which the research is to provide an answer”. Problem Identification Identifying a research problem is the first and foremost step in any research process. A researcher has to devote considerable time and attention for this. A research problem refers to some deprivation or shortcoming or a gap in knowledge that a researcher experiences in a theoretical or practical situation and wants to find a solution for the same. Research really begins when the above referred situation demanding a solution is perceived by the researcher within the realm of general topic selected by hum. The general area of interest here refers to the range of the subject matter within which he has to see and pose a specific problem for research. So, the formulation of the Continue reading
Interview Method of Data Collection in Research
Interview is one of the popular methods of research data collection. The term interview can be dissected into two terms as, ‘inter’ and ‘view’. The essence of interview is that one mind tries to read the other. The interviewer tries to assess the interviewed in terms of the aspects studied or issues analyzed. Purpose and Importance of Interview The main purpose of interview as a tool of data collection, is to gather data extensively and intensively. As Pauline.V Young pointed out that the objectives of the interview may be exchange of ideas and experiences, eliciting of information pertaining to a very wide range of data in which the interviewee may wish to rehearse his past, define his present and canvass his future possibilities. Thus, in brief, the objectives of interviewee are two fold: To exchange ideas and experience and To elicit information. The importance of interview may be known through Continue reading
Sampling Errors in Research
Error is defined as , “an act, assertion, or belief that unintentionally deviates from what is correct, right, or true”. In a business research process, there is sure to be some error in the results because there is the involvement of human intelligence and the use of sampling methods that may not be always accurate. The absolute value of the difference between an unbiased point estimate and the corresponding population parameter is known as a sampling error. It arises because the data is collected from a part, rather than the whole of the population. The sampling error can be more reliable by increasing the sample size. Sampling error is defined as the error that arises in a data collection process as a result of taking a sample from a population rather than using the whole population. Sampling error is one of two reasons for the difference between an estimate of Continue reading
Research Variables – Dependent and Independent Variables
Research is the foundation of any science, including both hard sciences such as physics, chemistry and the social sciences such as psychology, management and education. The steps and process involved in the research can vary depending on the type of research being done and the hypothesis being tested. Research methods such as Naturalistic observation and surveys are often less structured, where as experimental methods are more structured. Depending upon what is observed or experienced, new theories are developed. There are aspects of a theory or aspects of a study that can change or vary as part of interaction within the theory, defined as variables. Variables are anything that can change of effect the results of a study. In an experimental method, the experiment is conducted by changing the value of one variable and measuring the changes in another variable while holding or assuming surroundings constant. There is no limit to Continue reading